Theoritical Perspective
A.
Theoritical Perspective
a. The Botto-up Theory
The bottom-up theory of reading, also known as the data-driven or sublexical model, suggests that reading begins with the analysis of individual letters and letter combinations (graphemes) to recognize words. According to this theory, readers first decode the visual information presented on the page, such as letters and letter patterns, and then use this information to identify words and comprehend text. This process is often described as "building up" from basic visual elements to higher-level comprehension. Proponents of the bottom-up theory argue that decoding skills are essential for reading comprehension, as readers must accurately recognize words in order to understand the meaning of a text. However, critics of the bottom-up theory point out that reading is not solely a visual process, and that factors such as background knowledge, language skills, and context also play important roles in reading comprehension.
b. The Top-Down Theory
The
top-down theory of reading, also known as the conceptually-driven or whole
language approach, proposes that reading begins with the reader's prior
knowledge, expectations, and language proficiency. According to this theory,
readers use their understanding of the world, language structures, and context
to interpret written text. In other words, readers start with a broad
understanding of the overall meaning and then use this knowledge to guide their
understanding of the specific words and sentences in the text. Proponents of
the top-down theory argue that reading is a meaning-making process, and that
readers actively construct meaning based on their background knowledge and
experiences. Critics of the top-down theory, however, suggest that it may not
fully account for the importance of decoding skills in reading comprehension,
and that a balance between top-down and bottom-up processing is necessary for
effective reading.
c. Interactive Theory
The
interactive theory of reading combines elements of both the bottom-up and
top-down theories, suggesting that reading is a dynamic and interactive process
that involves the integration of multiple sources of information. According to
this theory, readers simultaneously use both bottom-up processing (decoding
words and analyzing text) and top-down processing (using background knowledge
and context) to comprehend text. Additionally, the interactive theory
emphasizes the role of reader-text interactions, suggesting that readers
actively engage with the text to construct meaning. This includes using
strategies such as predicting, summarizing, and questioning to enhance comprehension.
The interactive theory of reading recognizes that reading is a complex and
multifaceted process that involves the integration of linguistic, cognitive,
and contextual cues to create meaning.
d. Phonics-based Theories: These theories emphasize the
importance of decoding skills in reading. They suggest that reading is
primarily a process of translating written symbols into sounds, and that
phonics instruction is crucial for developing reading proficiency.
Phonics-based
theories of reading emphasize the fundamental role of decoding skills in the
reading process. These theories suggest that reading is essentially a process
of translating written symbols, such as letters and letter combinations, into
sounds. According to phonics-based theories, readers use their knowledge of
letter-sound correspondences to decode unfamiliar words and recognize familiar
words quickly and accurately. Phonics instruction, which teaches these
letter-sound relationships, is seen as crucial for developing reading
proficiency, particularly in the early stages of reading development. By
mastering phonics skills, readers are able to decode words more easily, which
in turn enhances their overall reading fluency and comprehension. Phonics-based
theories are widely used in reading instruction, particularly in early literacy
programs, as they provide a systematic and structured approach to teaching
reading skills.
e. Whole Language Approach: This approach views reading as a
holistic process that involves making meaning from text. It emphasizes the use
of context, prior knowledge, and language structures to understand and
interpret written language.
The
whole language approach to reading views reading as a holistic process that
involves making meaning from text. Unlike phonics-based theories that focus on
decoding skills, the whole language approach emphasizes the use of context,
prior knowledge, and language structures to understand and interpret written
language. Proponents of the whole language approach believe that reading
instruction should focus on meaning rather than on isolated skills such as
phonics. They argue that readers naturally use a variety of cues, such as
context clues and visual cues, to understand text, and that these cues should
be encouraged and developed through instruction. The whole language approach
also emphasizes the importance of authentic reading experiences, such as
reading books and other literature, to develop reading skills. Critics of the
whole language approach argue that it may not provide enough structure and
systematic instruction for some students, particularly those who struggle with
reading. However, proponents argue that when implemented effectively, the whole
language approach can lead to strong reading comprehension and a love of
reading.
f. Interactive Compensatory Model: This model suggests that reading
comprehension is influenced by both reader characteristics (such as background
knowledge and vocabulary) and text characteristics (such as complexity and
coherence). Readers use strategies to compensate for any deficiencies in either
area.
The
Interactive Compensatory Model (ICM) of reading comprehension posits that
reading is influenced by both reader characteristics and text characteristics,
and that readers use strategies to compensate for deficiencies in either area.
According to this model, readers' background knowledge, vocabulary, and other
cognitive abilities interact with the complexity and coherence of the text to
determine comprehension. For example, a reader with strong background knowledge
may be able to compensate for a difficult text by drawing on their prior
understanding of the topic. Conversely, a reader with limited vocabulary may
struggle to comprehend a text with complex language, unless they use strategies
such as context clues or dictionary use to compensate for their vocabulary
deficit. The ICM highlights the dynamic and interactive nature of reading
comprehension, suggesting that successful reading involves a combination of
reader characteristics, text characteristics, and strategic reading behaviors.
g. Schema Theory: According to this theory, reading
comprehension relies on the activation of schema, or mental frameworks, that
help readers interpret text. Readers use their background knowledge to create
and update these schema as they read.
Schema
theory suggests that reading comprehension relies on the activation of schema,
or mental frameworks, that help readers interpret text. These schemas are
developed through an individual's background knowledge, experiences, and
cultural understanding. As readers encounter new information, they integrate it
with their existing schema to make sense of the text. Schema theory explains
how readers can interpret and comprehend text even when some information is not
explicitly stated. For example, when reading a passage about a familiar topic,
such as going to a restaurant, readers activate their schema related to
restaurant experiences, which helps them understand the text more easily.
Schema theory highlights the importance of activating and building upon prior
knowledge to enhance reading comprehension.
h. Information Processing Theory: This theory posits that reading
involves a series of cognitive processes, including attention, perception,
memory, and problem-solving. Readers actively engage in these processes to
understand and interpret text.
Information
Processing Theory proposes that reading involves a series of cognitive
processes, including attention, perception, memory, and problem-solving.
According to this theory, readers actively engage in these processes to
understand and interpret text. When reading, individuals first attend to the
visual information presented on the page, such as letters and words. They then
use their perceptual skills to recognize these visual stimuli as meaningful symbols.
Memory plays a crucial role in reading comprehension, as readers must recall
and integrate information from earlier parts of the text to understand later
parts. Additionally, readers engage in problem-solving as they encounter
unfamiliar words or concepts, using context clues and other strategies to
derive meaning. Information Processing Theory provides a framework for
understanding the cognitive processes underlying reading and emphasizes the
active role that readers play in constructing meaning from text.
i. Dual Coding Theory: This theory suggests that reading
comprehension is enhanced when information is presented in both verbal and
visual formats. Readers can create mental images that supplement the
information presented in text, leading to better comprehension.
Dual
Coding Theory suggests that reading comprehension is improved when information
is presented in both verbal and visual formats. According to this theory,
readers have two cognitive pathways for processing information: one for verbal
information (words and language) and one for non-verbal information (images and
sensory input). When readers encounter text that includes visual elements, such
as diagrams, charts, or illustrations, they are able to create mental images
that complement the verbal information. These mental images serve as a form of
"dual coding," allowing readers to better understand and remember the
information presented in the text. Dual Coding Theory highlights the importance
of incorporating visual elements into reading materials to enhance
comprehension, particularly for readers who may struggle with purely verbal
information.
j. Social-Interactive Perspective: This perspective emphasizes the role
of social interaction in reading development. It suggests that reading is a
social activity that is influenced by cultural and social factors.
The
Social-Interactive Perspective of reading emphasizes the significance of social
interaction in the development of reading skills. This perspective suggests
that reading is not solely an individual activity, but rather a social one that
is influenced by cultural and social factors. According to this view, readers
learn to read through interactions with others, such as parents, teachers,
peers, and community members. These social interactions provide opportunities
for readers to engage with texts, discuss ideas, and receive feedback, all of
which are crucial for developing reading proficiency. The Social-Interactive
Perspective also highlights the importance of cultural and social contexts in
shaping reading practices and attitudes towards reading. It suggests that
reading is not only a cognitive skill, but also a social practice that is
embedded in broader social and cultural contexts.
k. Critical Literacy Theory: This theory focuses on developing readers'
ability to critically analyze and evaluate texts. It encourages readers to
question and challenge the assumptions and ideologies present in written
language.
Critical
Literacy Theory focuses on developing readers' ability to critically analyze
and evaluate texts. This theory encourages readers to question and challenge
the assumptions, values, and ideologies present in written language. Critical
literacy goes beyond simply understanding the literal meaning of a text; it
involves considering the social, cultural, and political contexts in which a
text was created and the impact it may have on readers. Readers are encouraged
to think critically about the author's purpose, the perspectives presented in
the text, and the potential implications of the text's message. Critical
literacy aims to empower readers to become active, informed, and engaged
participants in society by developing their ability to think critically about
the texts they encounter and to consider multiple viewpoints and
interpretations.
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